Wastewater Crisis and Performance Indicators between 2023–2025 (Gaza City)

This presentation presents an assessment of the wastewater system in Gaza City between 2023 and 2025, with a focus on the infrastructure of pumping and treatment facilities, as well as performance indicators recorded in 2023. During that year, the length of gravity sewer network approximately 636 km, comprising more than 69,000 main and secondary manholes, while the pressurized pipeline network reached nearly 24 km. Geographic coverage of the wastewater network reached 70%, and population coverage reached 90%, with an average daily wastewater production of about 77,000 m³. This wastewater was treated through two facilities: Sheikh Ajlin Treatment Plant, which operates using the traditional Trickling Filter system and handled 64% of the total flow, and the Central Bureij Treatment Plant, which uses the Activated Sludge system and treated 36% of the flow.

By 2025, the network had suffered extensive damage due to the war, with 33.3% of the gravity network and 10.5% of the pressurized network affected. This resulted in widespread sewage overflow and contamination of groundwater and coastal waters. The volume of wastewater reaching pumping stations dropped to only 21,000 m³/day, compared to 77,000 m³/day previously, largely due to the significant reduction in per capita water consumption.

Laboratory analyses conducted in 2026 showed a marked increase in non-biodegradable organic matter and suspended solids (TSS), indicating a severe deterioration in environmental and public health conditions. As a result, 100% of the wastewater generated in the city was discharged directly into the sea without treatment, posing serious risks to public health, marine ecosystems, and groundwater resources.

The report concludes that Gaza's wastewater system shifted from a relatively stable operational state in 2023 to near-total collapse by 2025, losing its capacity for safe treatment and disposal. This situation underscores the urgent need for comprehensive rehabilitation of the wastewater networks and treatment facilities.

Keywords: Gaza, wastewater, pumping stations, treatment plants, infrastructure, environmental pollution.

Management of the Wastewater Sector During the War (2023–2025) on the Gaza Strip: The Experience of Deir al-Balah Municipality — Challenges and Response

This paper examines the status of the wastewater sector in Deir al-Balah City before and during the war, highlighting the key operational, technical, and environmental challenges faced by the municipality. It also reviews the main emergency interventions implemented to maintain service continuity and mitigate adverse public health and environmental impacts.

Prior to the war, Deir al-Balah covered an area of approximately 20,000 dunums and had a population of around 100,000 people. The city was served by a wastewater network extending nearly 295 km, with a coverage rate of approximately 88% of residential areas, in addition to the daily operation of the two main wastewater pumping stations: Al-Bassa and Al-Berka.

The paper concludes that the wastewater sector in Deir al-Balah was exposed during the war to unprecedented challenges and exceptional pressure that exceeded its design and operational capacities. This was mainly due to damage to infrastructure, the sharp increase in population caused by waves of displacement, shortages of energy, fuel, equipment, and spare parts, the rising frequency of sewer blockages and wastewater overflows, and the widespread use of cesspits within displacement camps. Nevertheless, the municipality's response demonstrated a relative capacity to manage the crisis through continuous coordination with local and international partners, repeated maintenance of wastewater networks and pumping stations, reinforcement of technical teams and human resources, and the operation of vehicles for wastewater suction and desludging.

The paper emphasizes the need to adopt a comprehensive recovery plan that strengthens the resilience and sustainability of the wastewater sector during emergencies. Such a plan should include the rehabilitation of networks and pumping stations, expansion of the carrying capacity of main sewer lines, provision of alternative and sustainable energy sources, strengthening of the wastewater vehicle fleet, and development of an emergency operation system capable of responding effectively to future crises.

Status of Wastewater Networks and Performance Indicators in the City of Khan Younis after the War (2023-2025)

The wastewater sector in Khan Younis suffered extensive damage during the period 2023-2025, leading to a severe deterioration in basic service delivery and a significant increase in environmental and public health risks. Prior to the war, the wastewater system served approximately 75% of the city's population through a network extending about 190,000 linear meters, supported by nine pumping stations and two wastewater treatment plants. Despite its relatively acceptable performance, the sector faced challenges related to increasing hydraulic loads and the aging of some infrastructure components. However, the escalation of military operations resulted in widespread destruction, including damage to nearly 70% of the sewer network, the complete shutdown of all pumping stations, and the total suspension of wastewater treatment operations, leading to uncontrolled wastewater discharge and increasing environmental pollution.

Performance indicators revealed a sharp decline in the efficiency of the sector, as effective service coverage dropped from 75% to nearly 40%, while network failures and leakage rates increased substantially due to infrastructure destruction and limited operational capacity. In addition, the operating hours of pumping stations declined significantly because of fuel and electricity shortages. Public complaints also increased dramatically due to sewage overflows and service interruptions, forcing many residents to rely on cesspits and alternative sanitation solutions, which pose serious threats to public health, soil quality, and groundwater resources.

Despite severe constraints related to limited resources and difficulties in accessing spare parts and equipment, the municipality, in cooperation with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the International Committee of the Red Cross, implemented several emergency interventions. These included partial rehabilitation of damaged pumping stations and sewer lines, routine cleaning and maintenance of manholes, removal of accumulated wastewater from streets, and the construction of temporary bypass channels to reduce health and environmental risks in residential areas.

The study concludes that the rehabilitation of the wastewater sector in Khan Younis should be considered a strategic priority requiring an integrated approach that combines emergency response with sustainable reconstruction. Particular emphasis should be placed on strengthening infrastructure resilience, adopting alternative energy solutions to ensure operational continuity, and enhancing technical and institutional capacities to improve service efficiency and mitigate future environmental and public health risks.

Keywords: Wastewater, Wastewater Networks, Cesspits, Environmental Risks.

Estimation of Wastewater Quantities Generated in the Gaza Strip after the War (2023-2025) and Their Disposal Mechanisms

This study aimed to estimate the quantities of wastewater generated in the Gaza Strip during the period 2023-2025 under the extensive destruction of water and wastewater infrastructure caused by the war. The assessment was based on analyzing pre- and post-war water production and consumption data, operational records, and the quantities of wastewater collected and discharged into the sea.

The results indicated that before the war, total water production was estimated at approximately 360,000 m³/day, while actual water consumption reached about 300,000 m³/day, resulting in nearly 240,000 m³/day of generated wastewater. However, the quantities reaching wastewater treatment plants did not exceed 185,000 m³/day, indicating losses estimated at around 50,000 m³/day due to leakage from sewer networks or disposal through cesspits in unserved areas.

Following the war, and with more than 80% of water and wastewater facilities either destroyed or partially damaged, total water production declined to approximately 145,000 m³/day, while actual water consumption was estimated at about 100,000 m³/day. Based on a wastewater conversion factor of 0.85, reflecting severe water scarcity and displacement conditions, the generated wastewater quantity was estimated at approximately 85,000 m³/day.

The study further revealed that nearly 65,000 m³/day of wastewater is currently collected, pumped, and discharged directly into the sea without treatment, while approximately 20,000 m³/day is either lost through leakage from sewer networks and transmission lines or disposed of through cesspits. These practices pose serious environmental and public health risks to groundwater, soil, and the marine environment.

Laboratory analyses also showed that the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) concentration in wastewater increased to approximately 1000 mg/L compared to around 400 mg/L before the war, representing an increase of about 2.5 times. This increase reflects the sharp decline in domestic water consumption and the corresponding rise in pollutant concentrations, confirming the consistency and reliability of the study's estimates and calculations.

The study concludes that the war has not only caused severe deterioration in water and wastewater services but has also significantly altered wastewater generation and disposal patterns in the Gaza Strip. A substantial proportion of wastewater is now discharged directly into the sea or infiltrates into the surrounding environment without treatment, posing severe long-term threats to public health, groundwater resources, and the coastal ecosystem.

Keywords: Gaza Strip, Wastewater, Infrastructure, War, Wastewater Disposal, Cesspits, Environmental Pollution, Seawater, Groundwater, BOD.

Managing the Sanitation Crisis During Wartime in the Gaza Strip (2023-2025): Challenges and Response

This presentation addresses the catastrophic collapse of the sanitation system in the Gaza Strip during the 2023-2025 conflict, a period marked by the displacement of over 1.9 million people and the systematic failure of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) infrastructure. Data indicates that more than 80% of the sanitation infrastructure has been damaged, leading to a total shutdown of wastewater treatment plants due to critical fuel and electricity shortages. Consequently, raw sewage has flooded streets and displacement camps, posing severe public health risks, while untreated waste flows directly into the Mediterranean Sea and solid waste accumulates in unprecedented volumes.

The analysis identifies acute operational barriers, including severe access constraints, supply chain disruptions for repair materials, and the persistent "energy drought". The response strategy, framed within the 2026 Flash Appeal, outlines a $443.5 million requirement to target 1.4 million people. Key interventions include the rapid deployment of emergency latrines, fecal sludge management, winterization of drainage systems, and cash-for-work programs for waste collection. Ultimately, this work advocates for a strategic transition from temporary "band-aid" emergency measures toward a resilient, data-driven recovery model that restores sanitation as a fundamental human right and builds long-term infrastructure stability.

Keywords: Sanitation Crisis, Emergency Response, Gaza Strip, WASH Coordination, Infrastructure Resilience, Public Health.

Environmental Impacts of Sewage Discharge in Gaza's Environment after the 2023-2025 War

This presentation examines the catastrophic environmental consequences of sewage leakage across Gaza during the 2023-2025 war. It opens by establishing that Gaza's environment was already under severe stress prior to the conflict, with its coastal aquifer heavily overexploited and its wastewater infrastructure operating far beyond capacity. The destruction of war pushed this fragile system into total collapse, resulting in hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of untreated sewage being discharged daily into streets, soil, groundwater, and the sea.

The presentation analyzes impacts across four critical dimensions: groundwater contamination, where nitrate and bacterial levels have rendered 97% of the coastal aquifer unfit for drinking; agricultural soil degradation, where accumulated heavy metals and organic pollutants threaten both crop safety and long-term food security; marine ecosystem destruction, where daily discharge has created dead zones along the coastline, devastating fish stocks and the livelihoods of fishermen; and urban and camp health crises, where outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis A are spreading rapidly among a displaced population with virtually no access to sanitation infrastructure.

The presentation identifies the most acute geographical hotspots, warns that continued inaction risks permanent and irreversible environmental damage, and concludes with a structured multi-phase response roadmap covering emergency stabilization, medium-term rehabilitation, and long-term reconstruction — with clearly defined roles for local authorities, national ministries, and international humanitarian organizations including WHO, UNICEF, UNRWA, and OCHA.

Pre-War Status and Conflict Impacts on Groundwater Conditions in the Gaza Strip

The Gaza Coastal Aquifer has been subjected to long-term overexploitation and quality degradation, conditions that were significantly exacerbated by the 2023-2025 war. This study analyzes the pre-war status, wartime impacts, and post-war transitional behavior of groundwater quantity and quality in the Gaza Strip, with a particular focus on the concept of "false recovery." Prior to the conflict, groundwater abstraction (94-96 MCM/year) exceeded natural recharge, resulting in declining water levels (15-25 m), seawater intrusion, and widespread contamination, rendering most groundwater unsuitable for drinking.

During the war, extensive damage to water infrastructure, coupled with severe energy shortages, led to a drastic reduction in groundwater abstraction to approximately 20.4 MCM/year (a decline of 75-80%), and a corresponding decrease in per capita water supply to nearly 30 L/c/d. Despite these adverse conditions, groundwater levels exhibited a noticeable rise across the aquifer. Using MODFLOW simulations, this study demonstrates that such improvements are not driven by enhanced recharge, but rather by reduced pumping rates. This phenomenon is defined as "false recovery," indicating a temporary hydraulic response rather than a genuine restoration of aquifer conditions.

Scenario analysis for the post-war and future periods (2025-2028) indicates that as groundwater abstraction gradually increases with partial system recovery, water levels are expected to decline again, with the reappearance of drawdown zones and increased risk of seawater intrusion. These findings confirm that aquifer behavior in Gaza is primarily controlled by abstraction rates rather than natural recharge processes.

The study concludes that without strategic intervention—such as reducing abstraction to sustainable levels, expanding desalination capacity, improving wastewater treatment, and controlling contamination—the aquifer will revert to pre-war depletion conditions. Sustainable groundwater management is therefore critical to ensuring long-term water security in the Gaza Strip.

Keywords: Aquifer, Groundwater Overexploitation, Seawater Intrusion, False Recovery, MODFLOW Modeling.

Effects of Contamination with Sewage on Public Health

Contamination with sewage water is one of the significant and growing concerns that pose health risks to the general population, especially in war-torn and poverty-stricken areas. In the Gaza Strip, persistent deterioration of infrastructural resources, high population, and scarcity of clean water supplies have worsened the health implications related to raw and insufficiently treated sewage. This presentation highlights some of the multiple effects of contamination with sewage water on the health of the population. Some of the notable factors are the spread of disease-causing microorganisms, resulting in a higher prevalence rate of illnesses like diarrhea and hepatitis A, and the development of antimicrobial resistance due to the release of resistant bacteria and antibiotics into the environment.

A single drop of sewage water contains millions of microorganisms—including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites—many of which can cause disease in humans and animals. These microbes can contaminate food and drinking water through various pathways, and the risk of such contamination increases significantly under conditions of displacement, overcrowding, and limited access to domestic and safe drinking water, as well as with the spread of insects and rodents.

The contamination of drinking water further compounds the crisis, alongside the use of polluted water in agriculture, which facilitates entry of pathogens into the food chain. Vulnerable populations, particularly children, are disproportionately affected, experiencing higher rates of morbidity, malnutrition, and developmental impairment. The findings highlight that sewage pollution in Gaza is not solely an environmental issue but a complex public health emergency requiring integrated, cross-sectoral interventions in water, sanitation, environmental management, and infection control.

The paper recommends ensuring safe drinking water through household chlorination or boiling, and the distribution of disinfection tablets. It also emphasizes strengthening personal hygiene practices through intensive awareness campaigns on handwashing. Rapid control of infection hotspots and, where possible, isolation of infectious cases—especially in shelters—are essential. In addition, it calls for prompt outbreak response and the activation of field teams to monitor diarrheal diseases and hepatitis. The study further recommends ensuring food safety by thoroughly washing vegetables and adequately cooking food.

In the medium and long term, the paper recommends restoring infrastructure for the collection and treatment of wastewater, as well as ensuring safe methods for its disposal.

Keywords: Infectious diseases, Wastewater, War on Gaza.

Rebuilding the Sanitation System in Gaza: From Emergency Response to Resilient and Sustainable Recovery

This paper addresses the complex challenge of rebuilding the sanitation system in the Gaza Strip in light of the extensive damage inflicted on infrastructure and essential services. The Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment (RDNA) issued by the World Bank indicates severe deterioration in water, sanitation, and energy services, alongside the collapse of wastewater treatment systems, rendering services insufficient to meet the population's needs. Reports by United Nations agencies, particularly the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), further confirm that the breakdown of wastewater treatment, damage to networks, and increased reliance on cesspits have significantly heightened the risks of groundwater contamination and coastal pollution. Updates from the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) highlight the continued public health and environmental risks in displacement sites, with wastewater observed in surrounding streets in approximately 61% of assessed sites, in addition to the accumulation of solid waste and stagnant water.

This paper is grounded in the understanding that reconstruction should not replicate pre-existing models, but rather transition toward a more resilient, less vulnerable, and adaptive system capable of operating under emergency and constrained conditions. It proposes the R.E.S.I.L.I.E.N.C.E Framework as a practical approach to rethinking sanitation systems in Gaza, within a Next-Generation (NextGen) paradigm for sanitation in fragile contexts.

The framework is built on ten interrelated principles, including rebuilding better, ensuring emergency continuity, staged recovery, integrated planning, low-dependency operations, intelligent monitoring, ecosystem protection, network adaptability, circular resource recovery, and equitable and efficient service access.

The paper presents phased solution pathways, encompassing immediate interventions to prevent environmental and public health collapse, transitional solutions based on hybrid centralized and decentralized models, and a long-term strategic vision for developing a resilient, sustainable, and data-driven sanitation system.

Keywords: Sanitation, Resilient Recovery, Crisis Management, Urban Infrastructure, Digital Transformation.